Factors Influencing Academic Performance | Literature Review

Factors Influencing Academic Performance | Literature Review Ema Marie Attard Extra (or essential?) Curricular Activities As stated by (Goldberg, 1946), extra-curricular activities, before they act as and become potentially enhancing to something else, we could say that they are beneficial in themselves. We can say this because they seem to present substantial values and skills to the participant, whatever the extra-curricular activity is. Whether the activity is sports or drama, dance or music, a successful participant of this activity will, at the very least, endure â€Å"satisfaction and joy for its own sake† (Goldberg, 1946). That being said, there are ‘secondary’ uses (so to speak) for these extra-curricular activities and studies (Miller, Moyer Patricl, 1956, Sybouts Krepel among others) have proved and seem to be continuing to prove, the effects of these extra-curriculars are real and valid. So much so, that they might even lead us to temporarily forget the aforementioned intrinsic value of said activities. In fact, advocates of extracurricular activities (Fozzard, 1967; Miller, Moyer, Patrick, 1956; Sybouts Krepel, 1984) claim that this less formal aspect of education is partially responsible for contributing to the development of good citizens, the development of a healthy approach to life, both mentally and physically, the direction of use of an individual’s leisure time, the development of personal interests and talents, as well as a positive outlet for creative expression. The belief in the significance and validity of extra-curricular activity involvement pervades many academically respected institutions. For example, as McCormick (1999) noted, the University of Chicago’s undergraduate admissions could fill the ‘freshman’ class to come entirely with Valedictorians, however the university specifically chooses not to do so in favour of opting for those students who possess more than just a high academic performance. That being said, the idea that extra-curricular activities are essential for important skills is not a view that is shared universally. There is a long-standing question if extra-curricular activities have any value at all (Coleman J. S., 1959). Some research actually states that extra-curricular activities may serve for little other than social function and detracting from more important academic work (Gose, 1996). Impacts of Extra Curricular Activities on Academic Performance Immediately what comes to mind when thinking of extra-curricular activities is the idea that participation in an extra-curricular activity could potentially help a student adjust to working within a team, help build and increase his/her self-confidence, learn to become more efficient and more social (Goldberg, 1946). We can also propose that it helps reap tangible rewards; such as the payments of a service given, or merely the satisfaction of, say, a public performance. Not to mention the fact of the possibility of hobbies becoming careers (the tennis player becomes the coach) and the friendships that stand the test of time and somehow enrich the individual’s future (Goldberg, 1946). We can also talk about the discipline it requires to properly engage in an extra-curricular activity and the added discipline it takes to maintain it whilst maintaining a satisfactory academic performance. That being said, the exact opposite has also been argued; the fact that extra-curricular activities are a distraction, that they split focus, are too demanding in of themselves and are a general waste of time. In fact, one of the foremost beliefs about extra-curricular activities is that they should, whenever it was deemed possible â€Å"grow out of curricular activities and return to curricular activities to enrich them† (Millard, 1930). However, as time passed activities which were not directly related to the academic were being perceived as frivolous and were beginning to be deemed as disadvantageous and detrimental to academic achievement (Marsh Kleitman, 2002), which then led to them starting to be discouraged. Another point that could also be made is that it is those adolescents who already have more developed interpersonal skills choose to participate in extra-curricular activities and therefore such activities are not necessarily responsible for the development of the skills (Rubin, Bommer, Baldwin, 2002). It has only been in more recent years that we have come full circle and educational researchers are, once again, taking a more favourable approach to extra-curricular activities and their effect on accomplishments in academia (Marsh Kleitman, 2002). According to Broh (2002), total extra-curricular activity participation (TEAP) is in fact correlated to an improved grade point average (to use American jargon), decreased absenteeism and also elevated academic goals and aspirations.. Although we can argue that, for the most part, researchers agree that extra-curricular activities do have an impact on academic performance, the National Educational Longitudinal Study found that while participation in select activities improves achievement and performance, participation in others reduces it. As cited by Broh (2002); Eccles (2003) and Marsh Willis (2003) found that participation in sports had a consistently higher rate for enrolment in colleges. Synder Spreitzer (1990) also found that college attendance was significantly higher for those who participated in sports than those who did not; to use their words â€Å"the athletic role enhances the academic role† Extra Curricular Activities Formal Education We live in a world in which it is the norm and tendency to view formal education as a place where information is simply passed on to students. These students are seen as no more than passive recipients who merely absorb and gather this knowledge which has been passed on to them. In an article, Swanson (2002), attempts to change the perspective on students’ behaviour as he begins to look at it from the point of view of â€Å"purposive action†. This view is one where both the formal as well as the non-academic pursuits serve as resources in which adolescents may deem fit to invest in, with the intention of attaining any possible future goals. In other, older, studies (Winner, 1923), emphasis is placed on the structure of schools and the formation of extra-curricular activities within the school. However, more recent literature wants to call attention away from this and focus on the possibility (and probability) of a wider selection of activities that could have a significant effect of the achievement of educational aims that occur outside the formal educational system, in other words: the classroom. At this point we have established that the way in which adolescents decide to use their free time will somehow probably affect their performance academically in some way or other. Schlesser (2004) states that students who participated in co-curricular activities were three times more likely to have a higher grade point than those who did not participate in extra-curricular activities (Schlesser, 2004). The National Centre for Educational Statistics (1999) also reported that students who used their time by engaging in extra-curricular activities had a significant (positive) difference to those who did not engage in extra-curricular activities. Factors such as unexcused absences, skipping class were significantly lower in students who participated in extra-curriculars, it was also found that theses students not only did well academically but were ranked in the highest quartile on math and reading, not to mention the fact that they were expected to earn a Bachelor’s degree or hig her. The Centre for Comprehensive School Reform (CCSR) carried out another study which talks about the correlation between the student involvement in activities and their performance in the classroom. It states that activities aid the students in forming strong and successful relationships among adults and peers alike, an attribute that is of the utmost importance both within a classroom and to the outside world. They also state that activity programmes help foster within individuals more personal expectations of excellence and dedication to academic success. Not to mention, of course, the fact that they promote a positive psychological, social, emotional and healthy well being all around. Adolescents as Rational Actors Investors Returns on Investment If when examining social behaviour we choose to take a rational choice perspective we are implying that, the reason for an adolescent taking any form of action is due to an intention of somehow increasing, to the fullest extent, that adolescent’s own personal interest in goals of importance to them. We are aware that in this respect, adolescents states of mind are more normally portrayed as being the result of their surroundings and their all-encompassing environment rather than being self motivated â€Å"rational actors† (Swanson, 2002). Despite this pre-conceived notion, as Swanson continues to argue, the decisions adolescents are confronted with, for example, in terms of time management and motivation, can in fact be seen as influential in their capability of fulfilling important milestones in their lives. Findings show that participation in activities shows criteria of both social exchange and that of investment. In the previously cited study done by Swanson (2002), there was evidence supporting high returns for college enrolment when there was involvement in both the official academic curriculum as well as in extra-curricular activities. In  economics, the law of diminishing returnsis understood to be the decrease in theoutput of aspecific production  process as the quantity of a single  factor of production  is gradually increased, while the amounts of all other aspects of production stay constant. The law of diminishing returns states that in most productive processes, increasing more of a particular factor of production, while keeping all others stable will eventually produce lower returns per unit. So, in tandem with Swanson’s idea of return on investment, when associations with overinvestment (of extra-curricular activities) were made, indications of diminishing returns were seen. The Zero Sum Hypothesis This ties in, naturally, with those studies that propose that not only do extra-curriculars not have a positive effect of academic outcomes but rather that extra-curricular activities are in fact, a hindrance to any positive educational outcomes. This hypothesis is largely credited to James Coleman (1961) who, in The Adolescent Society, is often referenced as the source on the ‘zero-sum’ model of transaction between extra-curricular activities and academics (Holland and Andre 1987; Marsh 1992). A very watered down explanation of the concept of the ‘zero-sum’ hypothesis is that one investor’s profit mirrors another investor’s loss (whereby for every 1 euro someone makes, somebody loses 1 euro). In his study, Coleman investigated the social order structure of students in the typical American High School. He notes that whereas popularity is pre-eminent (leading to participation in activities such as athletics and cheerleading), academic excellence is a ‘secondary consideration’. The zero-sum logic is very typically used in studies about participation in extra-curricular activities whereby time is a fixed commodity split among a various number of activities, due to the nature of the formulation (that there are only two competing alternatives) and that the total amount of time available is constant, the individual must reduce the time spent on one activity in order to increase time devoted to the other. Time The Zero Sum Hypothesis Hence, according to Coleman (1961) time used on extra-curricular pursuits must necessarily diminish any and all academic pursuits. We can also speculate that, it could be the case that time is not the most fitting variable to measure returns on participation in a particular activity. The amount of time dedicated to a pursuit in actual fact, tells us very little about the level of dedication the person has invested in it and even more so about how productive they have been during that time. An individual might use time from areas of strength in order to support possible weaker areas of performance. By doing this, we can see time is not a used like a ‘currency’ that can be spent on any activity but rather represents a ‘resource to invest’, used strategically on the activities that will knowledgably have the highest possible rate of returns on the investments. This idea problematises the straightforward relationship adopted by the zero-sum hypothesis regarding the return of extra-curricular activities and the time spent pursuing them (Swanson, 2002). That being said, other studies also support the idea of limiting time of extra-curricular activities so as not to encroach on time of studies. Laurence Steinberg (1996) in his book the Classroom: Why School Reform Has Failed and What Parents Need to Do, criticises the fact that a large amount of students are completely too wrapped up in extra-curricular activities. He even suggests to parents to limit the number of hours (not more than ten) that their children are allowed to take part in extra-curricular activities. However, another assumption of the above model is that all academic pursuits are uniformly beneficial versus the fact that all extra-curriculars are intrinsically disadvantageous. That said, years of research conducted have now consistently shown positive academic results associated with extra-curricular participation, thus increasing the tendency for the discreditation of the zero-sum model’s main predication. For example, the fore-mentioned Synder Spreitzer (199 0) study which showed that participation in Sports increases college enrolment, among others (Spady 1970, 1971; Otto 1975, 1976; Otto and Alwin 1977; Marsh 1992). Social Capital Cultural Capital Social Capital Mullis, Rathge Mullis in their study Predictors of academic performance during early adolescence: A contextual view (2003), attempted to decipher the relationship between academic performance in adolescents and their contextual variables. In particular, their study consisted of testing the idea that commonly known aspects of resource capital, social capital and student behaviour can in actual fact predict academic performance in young adolescents. Mullis, Rathge Mullis quantified social capital in two particular components; through parental networks and student activity networks. For the benefit of my study I will mostly be taking into consideration their findings and hypothesis on social capital in relation to student activity networks; whereby we mean student reports of school activities and non-school activities. According to their research conducted, the links between the idea of social capital and academic performance was not as significant as expected and documented in other research (Coleman, 1988; Schneider Coleman, 1993; Steinberg, 1996; Steinberg, Dornbusch, Brown, 1991) mentioned. What this research did state is that through these social networks, the student’s opportunities are somehow boosted which, in turn, could lead to a more favourable environments that lend themselves to achievement (Mullis, Rathge, Mullis, 2003). This means that, due to the fact that they have increased opportunities to succeed, they do in actual fact succeed more; however not due to the individual being more equipped to succeed but by just being more exposed to times when succeeding is an option. Cultural Capital Similar in terminology, though not so much in meaning; another concept is that of Cultural Capital. The term Cultural Capital references the social, non economic attributes that contribute positively to the idea of social mobility beyond financial means. For example, level of education, IQ and physical appearance. All these give a person advantages which in turn give them an elevated status within society. Pierre Bourdieu divided this idea of cultural capital into three subtypes: embodied, objectified and institutionalised (Bourdieu, 1986). Cultural capital is not something that one acquires instantaneously or at one moment in time. Rather, it is embedded over time as it leaves an impact on one’s ‘habitus’ (character and way of thinking). Exposure to different activities and different disciplines in the form of extra-curriculars may inherently add to the adolescent’s cultural capital by adding to their pool of knowledge and skills. At the more basic level, cultural capital refers to the understanding of the central conceptual and normative codes that are inscribed in a culture. In the article Does Cultural Capital Really Affect Academic Achievement (Jà ¦ger, 2011), Jaeger is reflecting on Bourdieu’s famous hypothesis that cultural capital is actually an important resources that adds to a person’s academic success. According to Bourdieu, as stated previously the cultural capital one has, i.e. knowledge, skills and general idea of knowing ‘the rules of the game’ is wh at in fact the educational system is after and rewards. This subject is one that has fascinated not only Bourdieu. In fact, a long series of quantitative research has been done and found that various measures of cultural capital are indeed correlated in a positive way to academic attainment and educational achievement. Among those who have researched said topics are DiMaggio, 1982; Cheadle 2008; Crook 1997; De Graaf, de Graaf, and Kraaykamp 2000; DiMaggio and Mohr 1985; Dumais 2002; Farkas et al. 1990 and van de Werfhorst and Hofstede 2007, among others. Even though we might be unawares, the educational system is in fact structured to recognise and reward cultural capital, whereby teachers and other individuals in the educational system misinterpret a child’s cultural capital as actual academic brilliance and hence encourage upwardly biased ideas of these children. In turn, these biases contribute to the possible positive returns the children with cultural capital receive as fruit of these perceptions and preferential treatment (Jà ¦ger, 2011). We could say that individuals are not academically stronger because their cultural capital has in some way affected their academic prowess but rather because their cultural capital sets them apart in terms of how their educators view them. This altered view, somehow induces preferential treatment from their teachers and peers which strengthens their academic development. Research has consistently found that participation in extra-curricular activities has had a somehow positive effect on academic achievement (Cheadle 2008; Covay and Carbonaro 2010; Lareau 2003). In terms of Jaeger’s research, he found that cultural capital has a causal direct effect of on academic achievement also, which is an important result due to the causality that is proven rather than merely an influence. Counterculture Analysis: Al Capone Counterculture Analysis: Al Capone Joey Hagel Al Capone was one of the most notorious leaders of a criminal syndicate in the 20th century (Biography). So how can Al Capones reputation as a gangster be interpreted as a counter culture? Firstly, a counter culture is a sub-culture that rejects the culture of the larger society (Thomas). Al Capone is notorious for his smuggling of alcohol during the Prohibition era (Biography). Establishing himself and the Chicago mafia as a counterculture (Biography). Alphonse Capone was an Italian immigrant living in New York at a young age (Biography). He dropped out of school during the sixth grade and joined Johnny Torrios street gang in New York City (FBI). After Johnny Torrio moved to Chicago Al Capone followed him there assuming the role as his right hand man (FBI). Torrio taught Capone the importance of an opulent and respectable front while running the businesses behind the scenes (Biography). Eventually Torrio retired giving the lead way for Al Capone to take charge after already establishing a fearsome reputation (FBI). It was the beginning of prohibition during the time Torrio retired and Capone took charge smuggling alcohol into the city conceiving the genesis of Capones fortunes (Biography). As a sign of his position Capone never walked around armed, he instead traveled with two bodyguards at all times (Biography). Capone eventually gained office in Cicero City after threatening voters with violence and kidnapped election workers (Biography). After the assassination of Capones mentor Johnny Torrio, Capone gained full titles as head of the mob, by owning Torrios nightclubs, whorehouses, breweries, and gambling dens and attaining a government position (Biography). After gaining power Capone was always out, unlike other gangsters, Capone was always well dressed and wanted to be viewed as a businessman (Biography). His bootlegging of whiskey and alcohol was making him rich, but a few incidents including the Valentines Massacre and the Adonis Club Massacre, Capone was blamed for these incidents but was never incarcerated due to lack of evidence (Biography). Finally, in October 1931 Capone was charged with tax evasion, but was never charged for smuggling alcohol (Berger). The Jury found him guilty on two misdemeanor and three felony counts (Berger). Capone was sent to Alcatraz until 1940 when he was released (Biography). The sociological perspective is a view that involves looking at social life in a scientific systematic way (Thomas). This view assists you in identifying the fact that all people are social beings, in finding a balance between personal desires and demands of your social environment, and in viewing your own life within a large social and historical context (Thomas). Using the sociological perspective one can develop a sociological imagination; which is the ability to understand your place in society and how your actions affect others in your society (Thomas). The actions of this counter cultural group has affected the American government immensely. Laws were changed due to the actions of the Chicago Mafia and Al Capone. By continuously smuggling alcohol into the cities of the United States and making a fortune for themselves, an amendment to the constitution was formulated in order to negate the amendment prohibiting alcohol (Constitution). This brought back the ability to sell liquor in the United States once again (Constitution). Not only that but they broke other important laws that brought attention to the government and fear to society (FBI). Ethnocentrism is the belief that ones culture is superior than other cultures (Thomas). Ethnocentrism is imminent in the larger society of America who restricts the sale of alcohol. Where Al Capone was smuggling and selling alcohol to the society that forbid the action to occur (Biography). The larger society of America established a law that prohibited the sale of alcohol in the United States (Constitution). Since the subculture, the Chicago Mafia, did not agree with the amendment they decided to sell the liquor illegally going against the norms of the larger society (Biography). So the larger society found this group as a counter culture for not only bootlegging alcohol, but for braking other laws and going against other norms as well. They have also murdered, ran a whorehouse, and frequently gambled (FBI). These actions have defied the laws that the larger society created and due to the attempt of their incarceration found themselves to be a more superior culture. Cultural relativism is judging a person with the standards of that persons culture not your own culture (Thomas). I believe that the Chicago Mafia acts the way they do because of the 18th amendment which prohibits the sale of alcohol (Constitution). Not only did they disagree with this they saw the opportunity to make profits off of this prohibition; which seemed to be quite fruitful considering Capone made millions of dollars (Biography). Due to the defying of these laws the U.S. government, or larger society, they attempted to incarcerate the people behind these crimes (FBI). Which brought on more crime from the Chicago Mafia involving murders and shootouts with cops (Biography). One of these shootouts resulted in the death of one of Capones brother which may have affected Capones choices of action during this time period (Biography). So due to the laws of the larger society, the Chicago Mafia made actions that defied these laws due to disagreement, desperation, and a chance at opu lence (Biography). Personally I agree with the philosophy of the sale of alcohol; although I do not agree with the direction of the actions that the Chicago Mafia underwent. I agree that the ethnocentric view from the larger society possessed its flaws through the prohibition of alcohol which could have made the government money instead Al Capone took advantage and made the profits for himself (FBI). I do not agree with the actions Capone took to have the ability to sell liquor (FBI). Some of those involving murders including some massacres (Biography). With a sociological imagination one can understand the emotions of the society Capone effected through his actions. Although by understanding cultural relativism one can understand Capones actions which involved the smuggling of alcohol into American cities (Biography). Through these sociological understandings one can understand the actions of the counter culture and the emotions and reactions of the larger society. Works Cited Al Capone. Biography.com. AE Networks Television, 03 Mar. 2016. Web. 11 Mar. 2017. Al Capone. FBI. FBI, 20 July 2016. Web. 11 Mar. 2017 Berger, Meyer. The New York Times. The New York Times, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2017. Eighteenth Amendment. Constitution. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2017. LaVerne, Thomas. Sociology. N.p., 2003. Textbook. 11 Mar. 2017.